Multiple Object Tracking Task Research Articles

Peak occipital alpha frequency mediates the relationship between sporting expertise and multiple object tracking performance.

Multiple object tracking (MOT) is often used as a lab-based paradigm for investigating goal-driven attention as an indicator for "real-world" attention in tasks such as sport. When exploring MOT performance in the context of sporting expertise, we typically observe that individuals with sporting expertise outperform non-sporting individuals. There are a number of general explanations for performance differences such as cognitive transfer effects; however, the potential neurophysiological mechanisms explaining the relationship between sporting expertise and performance differences in MOT are not clear. Based on the role occipital alpha (posterior oscillations usually around 8-12Hz) has been shown to have in visuospatial attention, the aim of this study was to examine whether individual differences in occipitalpeak alpha frequency (PAF) mediate the relationship between sporting expertise and performance in two object tracking tasks: a standard MOT task and a visuomotor-controlled object tracking task (multiple object avoidance [MOA]). Using electroencephalography (EEG), participants, who either played sport competitively or did not, had their posterior PAF measured at rest (eyes closed) across a 2-min window. They completed the two tasks separately from the restingEEGmeasures. Those who engaged in sport performed better in the MOT and MOA tasks and had higher PAF. Higher PAF predicted superior MOT performance. The mediation analysis revealed that sporting individuals had significantly higher PAF, and this was in turn related to superior MOT performance. It is suggested that PAF is a possible neurophysiological mediating mechanism as to why sporting individuals have superior MOT performance. There was no evidence that PAF mediated the relationship between sporting expertise and visuomotor MOA performance. Explanations and implications are discussed, and unanswered questions are proposed.

Individual honey bee tracking in a beehive environment using deep learning and Kalman filter

The honey bee is the most essential pollinator and a key contributor to the natural ecosystem. There are numerous ways for thousands of bees in a hive to communicate with one another. Individual trajectories and social interactions are thus complex behavioral features that can provide valuable information for an ecological study. To study honey bee behavior, the key challenges that have resulted from unreliable studies include complexity (high density of similar objects, small objects, and occlusion), the variety of background scenes, the dynamism of individual bee movements, and the similarity between the bee body and the background in the beehive. This study investigated the tracking of individual bees in a beehive environment using a deep learning approach and a Kalman filter. Detection of multiple bees and individual object segmentation were performed using Mask R-CNN with a ResNet-101 backbone network. Subsequently, the Kalman filter was employed for tracking multiple bees by tracking the body of each bee across a sequence of image frames. Three metrics were used to assess the proposed framework: mean average precision (mAP) for multiple-object detection and segmentation tasks, CLEAR MOT for multiple object tracking tasks, and MOTS for multiple object tracking and segmentation tasks. For CLEAR MOT and MOTS metrics, accuracy (MOTA and MOTSA) and precision (MOTP and MOTSP) are considered. By employing videos from a custom-designed observation beehive, recorded at a frame rate of 30 frames per second (fps) and utilizing a continuous frame rate of 10 fps as input data, our system displayed impressive performance. It yielded satisfactory outcomes for tasks involving segmentation and tracking of multiple instances of bee behavior. For the multiple-object segmentation task based on Mask R-CNN, we achieved a 0.85 mAP. For the multiple-object-tracking task with the Kalman filter, we achieved 77.48% MOTA, 79.79% MOTSP, and 79.56% recall. For the overall system for multiple-object tracking and segmentation tasks, we achieved 77.00% MOTSA, 75.60% MOTSP, and 80.30% recall.

Deep learning and multi-modal fusion for real-time multi-object tracking: Algorithms, challenges, datasets, and comparative study

Real-time multi-object tracking (MOT) is a complex task involving detecting and tracking multiple objects. After the objects are detected, they are assigned markers, and their trajectories are tracked in real-time. The scientific community is intrigued by the possibilities of utilizing MOT technology in the context of smart cities. Their primary focus lies in the domains of intelligent transportation, detection of vehicles and pedestrians, crowd surveillance, and public safety. Deep learning techniques have been developed in recent years to effectively tackle the challenges of real-time MOT tasks and enhance tracking performance. Environmental perception within smart traffic applications relies heavily on sensor data fusion. In traffic scenarios, a thoughtful approach involves utilizing a combination of sensors and cameras to detect and track targets while gathering valuable data effectively. However, it faces challenges when it comes to detecting and tracking objects that are in motion, have complex changes in appearance, or are in crowded scenes. This paper explores the foundational standard for real-time Multiple Object Tracking tasks. We prioritize the examination of quantitative measures by conducting a comprehensive analysis of widely utilized benchmark datasets and metrics. This study also investigates established embedding techniques and multi-modal fusion methods within real-time multi-target tracking algorithms. Each strategy will be classified and assessed according to a predefined set of principles. The paper presents a comprehensive analysis and visual representation of various MOT strategies. Finally, this paper aims to present an overview of the current challenges faced by the MOT mission, as well as the potential objectives that lie ahead.

Transformer-Based Multiple-Object Tracking via Anchor-Based-Query and Template Matching.

Multiple object tracking (MOT) plays an important role in intelligent video-processing tasks, which aims to detect and track all moving objects in a scene. Joint-detection-and-tracking (JDT) methods are thriving in MOT tasks, because they accomplish the detection and data association in a single stage. However, the slow training convergence and insufficient data association limit the performance of JDT methods. In this paper, the anchor-based query (ABQ) is proposed to improve the design of the JDT methods for faster training convergence. By augmenting the coordinates of the anchor boxes into the learnable queries of the decoder, the ABQ introduces explicit prior spatial knowledge into the queries to focus the query-to-feature learning of the JDT methods on the local region, which leads to faster training speed and better performance. Moreover, a new template matching (TM) module is designed for the JDT methods, which enables the JDT methods to associate the detection results and trajectories with historical features. Finally, a new transformer-based MOT method, ABQ-Track, is proposed. Extensive experiments verify the effectiveness of the two modules, and the ABQ-Track surpasses the performance of the baseline JDT methods, TransTrack. Specifically, the ABQ-Track only needs to train for 50 epochs to achieve convergence, while that for TransTrack is 150 epochs.

Poster Session II: Attentional modulation of the achromatic and chromatic reversal VEP.

Previous literature has consistently revealed attentional modulation of the Visual Evoked Potential (VEP) response to achromatic pattern reversal stimuli but little to no attentional modulation of the VEP response to chromatic pattern onsets. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) research, however, has reported modulation of the responses to both achromatic and chromatic pattern reversal stimuli. Numerous methodological differences including mode of presentation, stimulus contrast, and attentional demand, make comparison of these results difficult. In this study, we report the results of experiments using comparable perceptual contrasts, pattern reversals, and a coextensive and highly-demanding, multiple object tracking (MOT) task. Our findings support prior VEP results indicating that although achromatic VEPs are modulated by attention, chromatic VEPs are more robust to attentional modulation, even for highly demanding distractor tasks. We also found that when compared to a non-attentional condition, the attenuation of the VEP when attending to the MOT task was greater in magnitude than the enhancement of the VEP when attending to the VEP stimulus. This supports prior conclusions, that while avoiding active distraction is likely important, insuring an "attentive state" is not always necessary when recording VEPs. Further experiments are underway to investigate why attentional modulation of chromatic signals in early visual cortex are observed in MRI but not VEP recordings.

Association between sports expertise and visual attention in male and female soccer players.

Visual attention plays a crucial role in daily living and in sports, affecting an athlete's performance and thus, potentially, the outcome of a match. However, studies assessing the association between the level of sports expertise and visual attention have yielded mixed results. This study was conducted to examine whether visual attention could be developed with increased sports expertise, and whether visual attention differed between male athletes and female athletes. A total of 128 participants were included in this study: 64 first-level national soccer athletes recruited from college soccer teams (considered elite athletes; 32 men and 32 women with similar soccer performance requirements and training experience), and 64 physical education college students with limited soccer experience (considered novice athletes; 32 men and 32 women with matched soccer experience). To assess visual attention, we used a multiple object tracking (MOT) task with four targets among a total of 10 objects moving at a fixed speed of 10°/s in random directions across a computer monitor screen. Tracking accuracy on the MOT task was calculated for each participant as the proportion of correctly selected targets. A univariate analysis of variance was performed, with group (expert, novice) and sex (male, female) as independent variables, and tracking accuracy on the MOT task as the dependent variable to assess whether sports expertise or sex influenced visual attention. Simple effects tests followed by comparisons with Bonferroni corrections were used, and effect size calculations were performed using Cohen's f statistic. Tracking accuracy on the MOT task was significantly affected by sports expertise (F(1,124) = 91.732, p < 0.001, ηP2 = 0.425), with accuracy among expert soccer athletes superior to that among novice soccer athletes. Moreover, a statistically significant interaction between sports expertise and sex was detected (F(1,124) = 7.046, p = 0.009, η P2= 0.054). Better tracking performance was observed for male soccer players (mean [SD], 0.39 [0.12]) than for female soccer players (mean [SD], 0.27 [0.08]); p<0.01; d=1.17; r=0.51) but only in the novice group. No significant sex difference was detected in tracking performance between elite male soccer athletes (mean [SD], 0.51 [0.09]) and elite female soccer athletes (mean [SD], 0.49 [0.11]). These findings confirm previous results indicating that long-term extensive sports training develops visual attention as assessed by MOT performance and extend previous findings to include soccer athletes. The findings of a sex difference in visual attention among novice soccer players but not among elite soccer athletes who had similar performance requirements and training experience suggest that long-term extensive training may minimize the sex difference in visual attention.

Prolonged cognitive effort impairs inhibitory control and causes significant mental fatigue after an endurance session with an auditive distractor in professional soccer players

BackgroundThroughout official soccer matches, the presence of cheer by the crowd could be considered a critical auditive distraction that could further impair the cognitive interference control system, multiple object tracking (MOT) skill, heart rate variability (HRV), and increase mental fatigue. As the resource is not immediately replenished, the impairment of the cognitive interference control system may be delayed following a soccer game. Then, evaluating the recovery time course of the cognitive interference control system, MOT skill, HRV, and mental fatigue after prolonged tasks combining physical, endurance, and cognitive effort are essential. PurposeWe aimed to analyze the acute effect of cognitive effort and auditive distractor with 24-h follow-up throughout a prolonged endurance session on inhibitory control, subjective mental fatigue, MOT skill, and HRV in professional soccer players. MethodsTwenty professional male soccer players were recruited (23.56 ± 3.8 years, 78.1 ± 6.9 kg, 1.77 ± 0.06 m, and 12.5 ± 5.3% body fat). The sessions were performed in a randomized and counterbalanced crossover design, divided into four experimental conditions: endurance, endurance + MOT, endurance + MOT + AD, and endurance + AD. The soccer players completed the incongruent Stroop task utilizing an eye-tracker to assess cognitive effort. MOT task, subjective mental fatigue, and HRV were evaluated before the endurance training (60%Δ of maximal aerobic velocity during 40-min) and after 30-min and 24-h of recovery. These sessions were designed to investigate the acute effect of prolonged cognitive effort (repeated MOT throughout the endurance task) and AD (constant crowd noise and coach's voice each 15–40 s, totalizing = 80 voices) on inhibitory control, MOT skills, HRV, and subjective mental fatigue after a fixed endurance training session. ResultsThere was no condition × time interaction for accuracy of inhibitory control (p > 0.05, ηp2 = 0.001). There was a significant condition × time interaction for inhibitory control response time (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.16). A higher response time of inhibitory control was found for the endurance + MOT + AD and endurance + MOT experimental sessions (p < 0.05). There was a significant condition × time interaction for subjective mental fatigue (p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.46). A higher subjective mental fatigue was found for the endurance + MOT + AD and endurance + MOT experimental sessions (p < 0.05). There was no condition × time interaction for HRV (p > 0.05, ηp2 = 0.02). ConclusionWe concluded that cognitive effort throughout a prolonged endurance session impaired inhibitory control and increased mental fatigue without promoting greater MOT skill and HRV changes in professional soccer players.

Gaze behaviour during multiple object tracking is dependent on binocular vision integrity.

Despite the critical importance of binocular vision integrity in daily activities, there exists limited understanding of how alterations in binocular vision integrity impact gaze behaviour during dynamic, complex psychomotor skills. This study aimed to measure how alterations in binocular vision integrity, created by Bangerter filters (BF), affect gaze behaviour during multiple object tracking (MOT). During the experiment, 22 volunteers completed the MOT task under three different visual conditions. The first condition involved natural binocular viewing, while the second and third conditions used 0.4 and 0.2 neutral density BF, respectively, resulting in monocular blur in the sensorially dominant eye. During the MOT task, participants were instructed to track three of eight balls for 10 s, and the speed was adjusted using a staircase procedure. Throughout the task, the following gaze parameters were recorded: fixation duration, saccade duration, amplitude and frequency as well as blink rate. During MOT execution, participants employed three gaze strategies regardless of viewing conditions: saccadic movements were predominant, followed by maintaining fixation on a central location throughout the trial and to a lesser extent, smooth pursuit eye movements. There was a significant effect of manipulating viewing conditions on the MOT scores (p = 0.046, η2  = 0.09). As the viewing conditions became more difficult, we observed a decrease in fixation duration (p = 0.004, η2  = 0.16) and blink rate (p < 0.001, η2  = 0.20) and an increase in saccadic amplitude (p < 0.001, η2  = 0.29). The results support the notion that perceptual-cognitive skills depend on the integrity of binocular vision, underscoring the sensitivity of gaze behaviours to any impairment of binocular function.

Comparing highly trained handball players’ and non-athletes’ performance in a multi-object tracking task

Highly trained team sports players possess highly developed visual attentional skills, compared with non-athletes. These athletes also have much better motor control than non-athletes. This study compared the performance of intensively trained handball players with non-athletes in a modified version of the multiple object tracking (MOT) task, in which participants were instructed to point at the moving targets with their fingers. We hypothesized that athletes will perform better in the MOT task than non-athletes, and that the increased visual attentional load in the MOT task will affect pointing movements to a smaller degree in athletes than in non-athletes. The results partially support our hypotheses. Highly trained handball players performed much better in the MOT task than non-athletes, which confirms that athletes have better visual attentional skills. Considering the influence of attentional load on motor performance during the MOT task, the results suggest that among athletes, this influence may be present, but limited. However, this result should be interpreted with caution.

Action matters! Target report technique affects interference between visually guided touch and multiple-object tracking

ABSTRACT When participants carry out concurrent tasks there can be overlap in action plans. This study shows the effects of action-plan overlap in a multiple-object tracking (MOT) task where participants tracked 1–4 targets while touching any items that changed colour during the item motion phase of tracking trial (either targets or distractors in MOT). We manipulated the way that participants reported MOT targets at the end of the trial. Participants (untimed) either reported targets by touching them with the index finger of their dominant hand (maximal overlap between target report and touching items that changed colour) or typed in letters corresponding to targets with their non-dominant hand (minimal overlap). Target report had no effect on single-task MOT performance. However, when participants had to touch items that changed colour during tracking, MOT was significantly worse when participants reported targets by typing them in rather than touching them and it also took participants longer to touch items that changed colour even though these colour changes preceded target report by 7–8 s. Nonetheless, target-report did not affect the performance discrepancy between the target- and distractor-touch conditions, which suggests performance differences between these two conditions reflect differences in attentional selection rather than action-plan overlap.

Audiovisual Tracking of Multiple Speakers in Smart Spaces.

This paper presents GAVT, a highly accurate audiovisual 3D tracking system based on particle filters and a probabilistic framework, employing a single camera and a microphone array. Our first contribution is a complex visual appearance model that accurately locates the speaker's mouth. It transforms a Viola & Jones face detector classifier kernel into a likelihood estimator, leveraging knowledge from multiple classifiers trained for different face poses. Additionally, we propose a mechanism to handle occlusions based on the new likelihood's dispersion. The audio localization proposal utilizes a probabilistic steered response power, representing cross-correlation functions as Gaussian mixture models. Moreover, to prevent tracker interference, we introduce a novel mechanism for associating Gaussians with speakers. The evaluation is carried out using the AV16.3 and CAV3D databases for Single- and Multiple-Object Tracking tasks (SOT and MOT, respectively). GAVT significantly improves the localization performance over audio-only and video-only modalities, with up to 50.3% average relative improvement in 3D when compared with the video-only modality. When compared to the state of the art, our audiovisual system achieves up to 69.7% average relative improvement for the SOT and MOT tasks in the AV16.3 dataset (2D comparison), and up to 18.1% average relative improvement in the MOT task for the CAV3D dataset (3D comparison).

Repurposing the multiple object tracking task to assess individual differences in attention resource capacity

Repurposing the multiple object tracking task to assess individual differences in attention resource capacity

What Is the Role of Sustained Visual Attention in the Maintenance of Postural Control in Young Adults?

Dual tasks requiring sustained visual attention and upright stance are common, yet their impact on standing balance is not well understood. We investigated the role of visual attention in the maintenance of postural control, using the multiple-object tracking (MOT) task. Healthy young adults (n = 12) performed the MOT task at three object movement speeds while seated or standing. MOT performance was assessed using tracking capacity (k). Metrics calculated to assess mediolateral (ML) and anterior-posterior (AP) postural control included: maximum difference between CoM and CoP position (CoM-CoP Max), root mean square distance for center of pressure and center of mass position (CoP and CoM RMS distance), and correlation between CoM and CoP time series signals (CoM/CoP correlation). As predicted, k decreased significantly as object movement speed increased for both standing and seated conditions. Object movement speed also significantly affected AP CoM-CoP Max in seated conditions (p = .021) and AP CoM/CoP correlation for standing conditions (p = .002). The results demonstrate utility of the MOT task in understanding the role of visual attention in postural control, even though healthy young adults were able to compensate for the addition of a sustained visual attention task, with minimal deficits to postural control.

Biological motion and multiple object tracking performance develop similarly from childhood through early adolescence

The multiple object tracking (MOT) (Pylyshyn & Storm, 1988) and biological motion (Johansson, 1973) tasks are both used to assess the perception of and attention to motion. These abilities are essential to the dynamic real-world task of identifying and monitoring multiple moving stimuli in the environment. We examined cross-sectionally the developmental changes in dynamic visual attention using 3D versions of both the MOT task and a masked direction discrimination biological motion task among 42 children and adolescents aged 6–14 years. The concurrent examination of these two tasks also allowed for an initial assessment of the pattern of task performance improvements with age. Performance on both tasks was found to improve with age and the relationship between the two tasks did not differ as a function of age, suggesting that biological motion and MOT attentional abilities improve similarly across age.

Predicting group benefits in joint multiple object tracking

In everyday life, people often work together to accomplish a joint goal. Working together is often beneficial as it can result in a higher performance compared to working alone – a so-called “group benefit”. While several factors influencing group benefits have been investigated in a range of tasks, to date, they have not been examined collectively with an integrative statistical approach such as linear modeling. To address this gap in the literature, we investigated several factors that are highly relevant for group benefits (i.e., task feedback, information about the co-actor’s actions, the similarity in the individual performances, and personality traits) and used these factors as predictors in a linear model to predict group benefits in a joint multiple object tracking (MOT) task. In the joint MOT task, pairs of participants jointly tracked the movements of target objects among distractor objects and, depending on the experiment, either received group performance feedback, individual performance feedback, information about the group member’s performed actions, or a combination of these types of information. We found that predictors collectively account for half of the variance and make non-redundant contributions towards predicting group benefits, suggesting that they independently influence group benefits. The model also accurately predicts group benefits, suggesting that it could be used to anticipate group benefits for individuals that have not yet performed a joint task together. Given that the investigated factors are relevant for other joint tasks, our model provides a first step towards developing a more general model for predicting group benefits across several shared tasks.

Characterizing Attention Resource Capacity in Autism: A Multiple Object Tracking Study.

The extant literature aimed at characterizing attentional capability in autistics has presented inconsistent findings. This inconsistency and uncertainty may be the product of different theoretical and methodological approaches used to define attention in autism. In the current study, we investigate whether the allocation of attentional resources to task demands, and attention resource capacity, differs between autistics with no comorbid attention-deficit diagnosis (n = 55) and age-matched neurotypicals (n = 55). We compared differences in capacity and the allocation of resources by manipulating attentional load in a Multiple Object-Tracking (MOT) task, a robust, versatile, and ecological measure of selective, sustained, and distributed attention. While autistics demonstrated lower MOT performance, this difference disappeared when we accounted for fluid reasoning intelligence. Additionally, the similarity in the trend of MOT performance at increasing levels of attentional load between autistics and neurotypicals suggests no differences in the allocation of attentional resources to task demands. Taken together, our study suggests that higher-order cognitive abilities, such as intelligence, should be considered when characterizing attention across the autistic population in research. Similarly, our findings highlight the importance of considering cognitive competence when assessing attentional capabilities in autistic individuals, which could have significant implications for clinical diagnosis, treatment, and support.

Offloading under cognitive load: Humans are willing to offload parts of an attentionally demanding task to an algorithm.

In the near future, humans will increasingly be required to offload tasks to artificial systems to facilitate daily as well as professional activities. Yet, research has shown that humans are often averse to offloading tasks to algorithms (so-called "algorithmic aversion"). In the present study, we asked whether this aversion is also present when humans act under high cognitive load. Participants performed an attentionally demanding task (a multiple object tracking (MOT) task), which required them to track a subset of moving targets among distractors on a computer screen. Participants first performed the MOT task alone (Solo condition) and were then given the option to offload an unlimited number of targets to a computer partner (Joint condition). We found that participants significantly offloaded some (but not all) targets to the computer partner, thereby improving their individual tracking accuracy (Experiment 1). A similar tendency for offloading was observed when participants were informed beforehand that the computer partner's tracking accuracy was flawless (Experiment 2). The present findings show that humans are willing to (partially) offload task demands to an algorithm to reduce their own cognitive load. We suggest that the cognitive load of a task is an important factor to consider when evaluating human tendencies for offloading cognition onto artificial systems.

Neural α Oscillations and Pupil Size Differentially Index Cognitive Demand under Competing Audiovisual Task Conditions.

Cognitive demand is thought to modulate two often used, but rarely combined, measures: pupil size and neural α (8-12 Hz) oscillatory power. However, it is unclear whether these two measures capture cognitive demand in a similar way under complex audiovisual-task conditions. Here we recorded pupil size and neural α power (using electroencephalography), while human participants of both sexes concurrently performed a visual multiple object-tracking task and an auditory gap detection task. Difficulties of the two tasks were manipulated independent of each other. Participants' performance decreased in accuracy and speed with increasing cognitive demand. Pupil size increased with increasing difficulty for both the auditory and the visual task. In contrast, α power showed diverging neural dynamics: parietal α power decreased with increasing difficulty in the visual task, but not with increasing difficulty in the auditory task. Furthermore, independent of task difficulty, within-participant trial-by-trial fluctuations in pupil size were negatively correlated with α power. Difficulty-induced changes in pupil size and α power, however, did not correlate, which is consistent with their different cognitive-demand sensitivities. Overall, the current study demonstrates that the dynamics of the neurophysiological indices of cognitive demand and associated effort are multifaceted and potentially modality-dependent under complex audiovisual-task conditions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Pupil size and oscillatory α power are associated with cognitive demand and effort, but their relative sensitivity under complex audiovisual-task conditions is unclear, as is the extent to which they share underlying mechanisms. Using an audiovisual dual-task paradigm, we show that pupil size increases with increasing cognitive demands for both audition and vision. In contrast, changes in oscillatory α power depend on the respective task demands: parietal α power decreases with visual demand but not with auditory task demand. Hence, pupil size and α power show different sensitivity to cognitive demands, perhaps suggesting partly different underlying neural mechanisms.

Study on the correlation between basketball players' multiple-object tracking ability and sports decision-making.

Players' multiple-object tracking (MOT) ability is very important in basketball because it may affect players' sports decision-making (SDM), thus affecting the results of the game. The purpose of this study was to investigate the differences between expert and novice basketball players in MOT ability and SDM and to explore the correlation between basketball players' visual attention and SDM. A total of 48 female basketball players (24 categorized in the expert group and 24 in the novice group) participated in the MOT task in Experiment 1 and the basketball 3 vs. 3 games in Experiment 2. Experiment 1 examined the difference in dynamic visual attention characteristics between expert players and novice players by changing the tracking number. Experiment 2 examined the differences between expert players and novice players through the SDM of basketball 3 vs. 3 games. Sports decisions were evaluated by basketball experts. MOT ability and SDM ability were analyzed through Pearson correlation. The overall MOT accuracy of expert players (64.6%) and novice players (55.7%) was significantly different (χ2 = 59.693, P = 0.000). There was no significant difference in accuracy when tracking 2-3 targets (P > 0.05), but there was a significant difference in accuracy when tracking 4-6 targets (P < 0.05). The overall SDM accuracy of expert players (91.6%) and novice players (84.5%) was significantly different (χ2 = 31.975, P = 0.000). There was no significant difference between expert players and novice players in the accuracy of dribbling decision-making (P > 0.05), but there was a significant difference in the accuracy of passing decision-making and shooting decision-making (P < 0.01). When tracking 4-5 targets, the tracking score was positively correlated with the passing decision score and dribbling decision score of expert players, and the tracking score of novice players was positively correlated with the passing decision score (r > 0.6, P < 0.01). First, the tracking accuracy of expert players was significantly higher than that of novice players, especially when tracking 4-6 targets. As the number of targets increased, accuracy decreased. Second, the accuracy of expert players' SDM was significantly higher than that of novice players, especially in passing decision-making and shooting decision-making. Expert players exhibited fast and accurate SDM. Third, there was a correlation between MOT ability and SDM performance. The MOT ability of 4-5 targets was positively correlated with passing decision-making, which was statistically significant. The correlation between the MOT ability and SDM performance of expert players was greater and more significant. Having too many targets to track (more than 6) interfered with players' decisions.

Disentangling working memory from multiple-object tracking: Evidence from dual-task interferences.

Multiple object tracking (MOT) is generally regarded as a pure attention-consuming task that draws heavily on attention resources. In the present study, we adopted a cross-channel visual-audio dual-task paradigm, i.e., the MOT task combined with the concurrent auditory N-back working memory task, to test whether working memory indeed plays a necessary role in the process of multiple tracking, as well as to further identify the specific types of working memory components involved in this process. Experiments 1a and 1b examined the relationship between the MOT task and nonspatial object working memory (OWM) processing by manipulatingthe tracking load and working memory load, respectively. Results in both experiments indicated that the concurrent nonspatial OWM task did not have a significant effect on the tracking capacity of the MOT task. In contrast, Experiments 2a and 2b examined the relationship between the MOT task and spatial working memory (SWM) processing by a similar approach. Results in both experiments indicated that the concurrent SWM task significantly impaired the tracking capacity of the MOT task, showing a gradual decrease with increasing SWM load. Overall, our study provides empirical evidence that multiple object tracking does involve working memory, primarily related to spatial working memory rather than nonspatial object working memory, which sheds more light on the mechanisms of multiple object tracking.